Dryden as a Political Satirist In Absalom and Achitophel

Abstract

Satire and the satirists have been in evidence in all ages of the world's history. Satire has always ranked as one of the cardinal divisions of literature, and it has been distinctly cultivated by men of genius. This was especially true in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when the classics were esteemed on authority as models . This type of writing may have historical as well as literary and ethical values. Smeaton says: "The satiric denunciation of a writer burning with indignation at some social wrong or abuse, is capable of reaching the very highest level of literature. "1 John Dryden's satires fit into this category. His Absalom and Achitophel is the greatest political satire in our literature, and the rest of his satires are very highly esteemed. Dryden has justly been regarded as England's greatest satirist, and the epoch of Dryden has been fittingly styled the "Golden Age of the English Satire." It is the object of this thesis to exhibit his contribution to the satiric Domain" by considering the meaning of satire, Dryden's interpretation of satire, the special qualities which distinguish Dryden's satiric spirit, and the modifications of that spirit as they are shown in his political satire, Absalom and Achitophel. The absence of any established criteria as a basis for the study of satire is a difficult y which must be recognized and met at the very outset. This paper does not attempt, by any means, to fill this gap. For Professor Tucker and Professor Alden have quite satisfactorily succeeded in establishing criteria or terminology that might serve for the treatment of satire as a genre. An effort is made to define satire only in general terms as an introduction and as an aid to the reader. Any study of satirical poetry in England is rendered difficult by a confusion of terms. If we look into A New English Dictionary, we will note that satire comes from the Latin word "satira, later form of satura" meaning a medley. As a specific application of satura (medley), satire was "in early use a discursive composition in verse treating of a variety of subjects, in classical use a poem in which prevalent follies or vices are assailed with ridicule or with serious denunciation." Dr. Johnson's Dictionary gives the following definition: "Satire (Lat. satira) Poem of a moral character (as such opposed to lampoon), wherein vice or folly is either ridiculed, or censured with irony." These definitions give us a general idea of the term. But to understand satire a more detailed clarification will prove helpful. Professor Tucker gives us quite an adequate explanation when he says that the confusion of terms lies in the really triple meaning of the word satire. “As given in the dictionary, satire, in one sense, is an abstract term cognant with ridicule; as when we say, ‘Satire has accomplished revolutions.’ A second meaning refers to a literary form that has for its object destructive criticism, as when we say…” Mac Flecknoe is a Satire on Shadwell. In this double meaning there is no confusion, for a distinction is simplified by the mere use of a capital letter when the word “satire” is used to denote a literary form. “But, unfortunately, a double meaning lurks in the first and more abstract signification of the word …. Here two things are confused: the satirical spirit, an intangible, abstract some thing that underlies and inspires what we commonly call satire--or ridicule --or invective; and satire itself, which is merely the concrete manifestation of the satiric spirit in literature.” Clarification of terms would involve a long discussion and many illustrations, but for our purpose it is sufficient to bear in mind that “…. the term satirical spirit always refers to a point of view; the word satire to a concrete but general embodiment of that point of view in literature; and the Satire (capitalized) to the literary form or the genre, as well as to any particular example of the genre.” Thus, we may say, the satirical spirit is enthusiastic; Dryden's satire is directed against the Whigs; Dryden made a great contribution to the Satire; Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel is a Satire of great importance. Worcester defines formal satire as: “…. a poem of short or middling length, designed to express the author's disapprobation of political, social, or personal actions, condition or qualities written in heroic couplet, in real or fancied imitation of one or more of the Roman satirists; its prevailing tone may be one of gross invective, satiric invective, or burlesque ….” Dryden, on the other hand, in his Essay on Satire quotes with approval Heinsius's definition of satire, and evidently means formal satire. Heinsius (in his dissertation on Horace) defines satire thus: “Satire is a kind of poetry, without a series of action, invented for the purging of our minds; in which human vices, ignorance, and errors, and all things besides, which are produced from them in every man, are severely reprehended; partly dramatically, partly simply, and sometimes in both kind of speaking; but for the most part, figuratively, and occultly; consisting in a low familiar way, chiefly in a sharp and pungent manner of speech; but partly~ also, in a facetious and civil way of jesting; by which either hatred, or laughter, or indignation, is moved.” Briefly, Dryden's theory is that all virtues are to be praised and recommended to practice, and all vices reprehended, and made either odious or ridiculous; otherwise, there is a fundamental error in the whole design. Dryden from the standpoint of the literary artist, says in his Essay on Satire, "The nicest and the most delicate touches of satire consist in fine raillery." Dryden's dictum for designing a perfect satire is “that it ought only to treat of one subject; to be confined to one particular theme; or at least to one principally. If other vices occur in the management of the chief, they should only be transiently lashed, and not be insisted on, so as to make a design double." Another rule comprehended under this unity of theme is that the satirist is "bound, and that ex officio, to give his reader some one precept of moral virtue , and to caution him against some particular vice or folly." Other subordinate virtues may be recommended under the chief head; other vices or follies may be scourged, besides that which he principally intends.” But he is chiefly to inculcate one virtue, and insist on that." This has not been a universal law for satire, nevertheless, it is highly respected by many reliable critics. Later in the treatise we shall see how Dryden adheres to his principles. His Discourse concerning the Original and Progress of Satire (1692) was written after his great Satires (1681-1687), but the same principles were well set in his mind . Numerous unjust attacks have been launched against Dryden by some critics. Are their conjectures true? Prejudices and assumptions, and not true evidence played an important role here. To understand Dryden's satire, it is necessary to take into consideration his cast of mind, as well as, the events of his time. With this intellectual insight we shall agree that his thoughts and his craftsmanship are superb. He seems to fit into Newman's dictum: "The style of a great author will be the faithful image of his mind, and this no less in oratory than in poetry." Great authors have great thought; for thought and speech are inseparable. Why question Dryden's sincerity? "Dryden has succeeded in making eternally interesting and entertaining his own private beliefs, just as Shakespeare has succeeded in arousing our interest in his own love for a dark- eyed lady, long since dead." A consideration of Dryden's satiric spirit as it is shown in Absalom and Achitophel involves an investigation of the objects of his attacks, whether individuals, classes, or institutions, and a discussion of the relation of his satire to contemporary society and politics; what he tried to do and how he succeeded. It also necessitates a study of the methods he utilized, and the manner he was inclined to assume. Therefore, Chapter II will deal with Dryden's cast of mind, his intellectual milieu, his honesty, and his consistency. Chapter III will treat the political background of the central problem of his poem. Chapter IV will contain the analysis of Absalom and Achitophel, analyzed politically, satirically and poetically. Lastly, a summary will be presented of the characteristics which distinguish his satiric spirit and make his work distinctive and unique.